(A) Keynesian Revolution: It was in the year
1936 that Lord John Maynard Keynes’ General Theory of Employment,
Income and Rate of Interest was first published. It is the first
ever full account of macroeconomic activities. Keynes’ theory is an
outstanding piece of analysis, which is considered a landmark in
the history of economic science. It contains a variety of novel scientific
ideas. It is a major breakthrough in the classical tradition and an
entry into a modern Keynesian school of economics. His followers Harrod,
Domar, Kaldor, Mrs. Robinson, Solow etc. have ever since widened the
scope of macroeconomic analysis. After the publication of the General
Theory both economic practice and policy making have changed fundamentally.
It is not without reason that the theory has come to be known as 'Keynesian
Revolution'. The revolutionary impact of the theory has been variously
demonstrated. Keynes has introduced a variety of new tools of analysis.
His equations of income and expenditure, consumption function, law of
marginal propensity to consume (MPC), multiplier operations, investment
function and marginal efficiency of capital (MEC), identity between
savings and investment, and his pure monetary liquidity preference theory
of interest accompanied by speculative motive for demand for money are
some of his new contributions.
Keynes denied the classical belief that the free enterprise
system is a self regulating one and asserted that such a system
requires periodic intervention of the public authority to avoid fluctuations
and instability in economic activities. Besides, Keynes replaced the
classical partial equilibrium by a more general equilibrium to
ensure the full employment level of output and employment. Keynes was
building an entirely new structure of economic analysis to study and
redress the problem of unemployment. It was therefore essential
for him to bring out weaknesses and inadequacies of the classical approach
to the problem of unemployment.
(B) Critique of Say’s Law: Keynes’ criticism
of the classical theory in general and Say’s Law in particular is the
first step in the direction of the new theory. Say’s Law of the markets
is a truism only under barter economic system. In that case whatever
goods are produced are either sold in the market or are utilized for
self-consumption. Hence supply and demand are always equated.
There cannot be a general surplus or glut of the goods. Though this
works well under barter conditions it is no more true in a modern economy
where almost every transaction is carried out with money in the form
of currency or credit. In such an economy buyers and producers
or even sellers are not directly collecting together to carry out the
exchange activity but messages are sent through the medium of money.
The classical approach is essentially partial and a
microeconomic piece of analysis. It looks at the problem of employment
and unemployment from the perspective of an individual producer and
employer. Therefore it regards unemployment only as a temporary and
voluntary condition. It rules out any possibility of large-scale involuntary
condition of general unemployment. But in reality one noticed frequent
occasions of economic fluctuations and widespread unemployment conditions
throughout the 19th century and early 20th century. The latest
example of it is in the form of the period of the Great Depression
(1929-33) which rendered 40 percent or more of the labor force unemployed
in western countries and other parts of the world. All these events
make it evident that the classical theory was far from the reality.
This is essentially true because the problem of unemployment is not
partial but general, not voluntary but involuntary and not micro
but macro in its nature. Therefore it needs to be analyzed in its proper
perspective and handled differently. Unemployment, as we understand
today, was not a problem for classics which is unfortunately not true.
Moreover, the classical solution to tackle unemployment,
in whatever form they conceived it, is totally inadequate and unsatisfactory.
They have relied entirely on a cut in the rate of interest and wage
rates. These are self-defeating polices. Any cut in wage rates will
result in widening the gap of unemployment instead of correcting it
in modern times. This is because of the fact that any attempt to cut
wage rates at the bottom of the depression period will cause a considerable
portion of the aggregate or effective demand to reduce further causing
a more severe unemployment situation. This can be illustrated with the
help of a simple example:
Let’s assume that a small fruit seller sells 20kg of
fruit at a market price of $10 on a daily basis. Thus his daily turnover
is $200 (20 ´ 10) of which the only cost
of production is in the form of wage rate. If he employs 10 laborers
at a daily rate of $15, then the total wage payment is $150 (10 ´
15). The fruit seller therefore earns a daily profit of $50 (200 - 150).
If for some reason the demand for fruit that he sells reduces, then
he will have to reduce the price say from $10 to $8. In this new situation
his total daily turnover goes down to $160 and at the old cost of production,
his profit margin declines to $10 (160-150). The fruit seller is not
satisfied with this. Therefore he may reduce the number of his workers
from 10 to 8 and bring down the cost of production from $150 to $120
(8 ´ 15). The two workers are then rendered
unemployed. If the unemployed laborers insist on their re-employment,
the producer will lay down the condition that wage rate of all the workers
will be reduced from $15 to $11. If the workers accept this then the
total wage bill will be $110 (10 ´ 11) which
restores the seller’s profit of $50 (160 - 110) as before. It appears
that even with reduced demand and fall in the price of fruit, unemployment
of workers has been avoided with the help of a cut in the wage rate.
But this in only a momentary and superficial solution. The workers’
total income has
now reduced from $150 to $110 as a result of which
they can spend less and reduce demand for every other commodity that
they consume. Therefore initially the problem of depressed demand and
unemployment which was faced by a single seller will eventually become
a general and wider problem faced by all other dealers. Instead of curbing
it, the wage cut solution will therefore increase the problem
of unemployment. Though this example is oversimplified and hypothetical
yet it helps to bring out gist of the Keynes’ Criticism of Classical
theory.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar
Terima Kasih